MAKALAH POPULASI DAN SAMPEL (tugas research methodology)

POPULASI DAN SAMPEL

A. Populasi
Dalam penelitian, langkah pertama dalam mendesain penelitian adalah menentukan populasi yang mempunyai karakteristik yang sesuai dengan kajian penelitian. Peneliti harus menetapkan grup tertentu yang akan diteliti sebelum kemudian menentukan sampel penelitian atau melakukan penelitian sensus. Sebagai peneliti, untuk dapat menentukan populasi dari penelitian yang akan dilakukan, dia harus terlebih dahulu mengetahui segala sesuatu tentang populasi dan sampel.

1). Pengertian
Kata populasi (population) adalah kata istilah yang digunakan dalam penelitian yang merujuk pada sekumpulan individu dengan karakteristik khas yang menjadi perhatian dalam suatu penelitian (pengamatan). Frankle and Wallen (2008: 92) mendefinisikan bahwa populasi adalah semua anggota dari grup tertentu yang menjadi perhatian peneliti dan menjadi subjek generalisasi hasil penelitian.


2). Target Populasi versus Accessible Populasi
Dilihat dari batas dan luas jumlahnya, populasi dapat dibedakan menjadi target populasi atau sering disebut ideal population, dan accessible populasi atau disebut juga dengan realistic popolation. Berikut akan diuraikan satu pesatu.
a. Target populasi (ideal population)
Targe populasi adalah jumlah real anggota populasi sebagai subjek generalisasi hasil penelitian. Populasi ini disebut juga ideal population. jumlah anggota yang terdapat dalam populasi ini sangat besar dan bahkan bisa mencapai tak terhitung.
Contoh:
Semua binatang didunia
Semua siswa di Amerika
Semua mahasiswa di Indonesia
Populasi ini jarang digunakan dalam penelitian karna sangat sulit mengumpulkan anggota-anggota yang berjumlah besar dan tersebar luas dari satu daerah ke daerah lainnya. Untuk itu, peneliti biasanya menyempitkan lingkup populasi yang akan diteliti, yang disebut dengan accessible populasi.
b. Accessible populasi (realistic population)
Accessible populasi adalah populasi yang jumlahnya dapat dijangkau untuk dijadikan subjek penelitian. Peneliti mempersempit batas populasi yang akan diteliti dalam zona yang lebih kecil.
Contoh:
Semua binatang melata di kebun binatang Bukit Tinggi.
Semua siswa SMP jurusan IPA kelas 3 di Winchester Messachussets Amerika
Semua mahasiswa hukum semester 1 di Universitas Jambi Indonesia
Dengan menyempitkan batas populasi penelitiannya, peneliti akan dapat dengan mudah melakukan sampling dan melaksanakan penelitian.

B. Sampel
Sampel adalah bagian dari populasi yang menjadi sumber informasi tertentu yang dibutuhkan dalam penelitian (Frankle, 2008 h. 107). Sampel dari suatu populasi haruslah representatif terhadap semua anggota populasi, sehingga hasil penelitian dapat digeneralisasikan terhadap populasi.
Penelitian dengan menggunakan sampel sebagai sumber informasi dilakukan karena pertimbangan biaya, waktu dan tenaga jika jumlah populasinya besar dan sulit digapai peneliti dalam jangka waktu singkat dan biaya yang hemat. Peneliti dapat meneliti sebagian anggota dari populasi yang dianggap representatif terhadap populasi.

C. Teknik Sampling
Sampling adalah istilah yang merujuk pada proses penarikan atau penyeleksian anggota populasi untuk dijadikan sampel penelitian. Secara umum, sampling dapat dibedakan menjadi dua, yaitu random sampling dan nonrandom sampling.
1. Random sampling
Blaxter, dkk (1996: 245) mendefinisikan bahwa random sampling adalah teknik pengambilan sampel dimana tiap-tiap individu dalam populasi mendapat peluang yang sama untuk terpilih. Dalam penarikan sampel ini, peneliti memilih sampel secara acak tanpa bias. Beberapa teknik penarikan sampel dalam random sampling adalah sampling acak sederhana (simple random sampling), sampling berstrata atau bertingkat (stratified random sampling), sampling kelompok (cluster sampling) dan sampling acak dua tingkat (two stage random sampling) (Frankle dan Wallen, 2008, h. 95).
a) Sampling acak sederhana (simple random sampling)
sampling acak sederhana adalah sebuah proses sampling yang dilakukan sedemikian rupa sehingga setiap satuan sampling yang ada dalam populasi mempunyai peluang yang sama untuk dipilih ke dalam sampel. Ada beberapa cara dalam memilih sampe dengan teknik ini. Gay (1996: 104) menerangkan dua cara dalam teknik acak sederhana ini.
1). Menggunakan slip kertas (slip of paper)
Langkah dengan menggunakan slip kertas ini adalah dengan menuliskan nama dari setiap anggota populasi dalam selembar slip secara terpisah. Kemudian semua slip yang telah diberi nama dari anggota populasi tersebut dimasukkan kedalam satu tempat tampungan (container) seperti topi dan benda lain yang bisa digunakan sebagai container. Kemudian slip slip dalam container itu diacak dengan cara menguncangkan container tersebut. Langkah selanjutnya adalah memilih secara acak slip satu persatu sehingga mencapai jumlah sampel yang telah ditentukan terlebih dahulu. Cara ini adalah cara yang mungkin dilakukan jika jumlah sampel dari populasi yang diinginkan tidak berjumlah besar. Jika sampel yang diinginkan berjumlah besar maka cara ini menjadi kurang efektif dan memerlukan kerja yang alot dalam menulis nama dari tiap-tiap individual dedalam satu slip satu persatu dan tentunya membutuhkan tempat tampungan yang leih besar. Maka cara lain yang disarankan Gay adalah dengan menggunakan tabel angka acak (table of random numbers) seperti ulasan berikut ini.



2). Menggunakan tabel angka acak (table of ramdom numbers)
Langkah-langkah dalam penggunaan tabel angka acak (table of random numbers) yang disarankan oleh Gay adalah sebagai berikut:
1. Menentukan populasi
2. Menentukan jumlah sampel yang diinginkan
3. Mencantumkan semua anggota populasi
4. Menomori tiap-tiap individu dalam populasi. Contoh, 0000-9999
5. Pilih angka tempat memulai perhitungan pada tabel secara acak. Contoh, dengan memejamkan mata dan mengarahkan mata pencil dimana saja pada tabel.
6. Sesuaikan digit angka pada tabel yang terpilih dengan jumlah digit angka pada jumlah populasi. Contoh, jika jumlah populasi adalah 500 orang maka digit angka yang dipakai adalah tiga digit angka terakhir pada angka yang terpilih ditable.
7. Jika angka yang terpilih korespon terhadap jumlah populasi maka angka tersebut diambil sebagai sample. Contoh, jika angka yang terpilih adalah 355 sedangkan jumlah populasi adalah 500 maka angka 355 tersebut dimasukkan ke sampel. Jika angka yang dipilih tidak korespon atau melebihi angka pada populasi, maka angka tersebut tidak dimasukkan kedalam populasi.
8. Pindah ke angka berikutnya pada tabel dan ulangi langkah 7.
9. Ulangi langkah 8 sehingga mencapai jumlah sampel yang diinginkan.

b) Sampling berstrata (stratified random sampling)
Sampling berstrata adalah proses pengambilan sampling dimana dalam satu populasi terdapat kelompok-kelompok subjek dan di antara satu kelompok dengan kelompok yang lain terdapat adanya strata atau tingkatan (Arikunto, 2007 h. 96).
Gay (1996: 107) memberikan beberapa langkah yaitu:
1. Menentukan populasi
2. Menentukan jumlah sampel
3. Menentukan variabel dan subgrup (strata)
4. Mengklasifikasikan semua anggota populasi kedalam salah satu subgrup yang telah ditentukan
5. Menggunakan tabel angka acak (table of random numbers) untuk memliih jumlah (proporsi) anggota pada tiap strata.

c) Sampling kelompok (cluster sampling)
Sampling kelompok (cluster sampling) adalah salah satu teknik sampling acak yang dilakukan dengan memilih kelompok dan bukan individu yang terdapat dalam populasi (Frankle dan Wallen, 2009 h. 97).
Langkah dalam teknik ini adalah:
1. Menentukan populasi
2. Menentukan jumlah sampel
3. Menentukan kelas
4. Masukkan semua kelas dalampopulasi
5. Lakukan estimasi jumlah rata-rata anggota populasi dalam satu kelas (cluster)
6. Lakukan determinasi jumlah kelas yang akan diambil dengan membagikan jumlah sampel dengan jumlah kelas yang sudah diestimasi
7. Pilih kelas (cluster) secara acak dengan menggunakan table angka acak (tabel of random numbers)
8. Masukkan semua anggota populasi dalam setiap kelas yang terpilih


d) Sampling acak dua tingkat (two-stage random sampling)
Sampling acak dua tingkat ini dilakukan dengan menggabungkan sampling kelas acak dan sampling individual acak.Peneliti lebih memilih mengambil sampling kelompok dan memilih individu secara acak dari tiap kelompok yang telah dipilih secara acak.

10. Nonrandom sampling
Nonrandom sampling adalah teknik sampling yang merupakan kebalikan dari random sampling dimana tiap individu dalam satu populasi tidak memiliki peluang yang sama untuk terpilih, bahkan sebagian telah nyata tidak memperoleh peluang. Teknik sampling yang termasuk dalam nonrandom sampling adalah sistematik sampling (systematic sampling), sampling kemudahan (convenience sampling), dan sampling bertujuan (purposive sampling).
Selain teknik sampling di atas, Blaxter dkk (1996) juga menambahkan beberapa teknik sampling lain, yaitu, sampling kuota (quota sampling) dan snowball sampling.
a) Sistematik sampling (systematic sampling)
Sistematik sampling adalah proses pengambilan sampel dari populasi dimana individu individu dipilih berdasarkan urutan ke-n (nth). Gay memberikan langkah-langkah pengambilan sampling ini sebagai berikut:
1. Menentukan populasi
2. Menentukan jumlah sampel yang diinginkan
3. Menggunakan daftar populasi. Contohnya daftar nama populasi berdasarkan urutan abjad.
4. Menentukan rentang n dengan cara membagikan jumah populasi dengan jumlah sampel yang diinginkan
5. Memulai dari tempat acak dari daftar nama awal yang dipilih.
6. Mulai dari angka awal yang terpilih, perhitungan dilanjutkan hingga mencukupi jumlah sampel.
7. Jika perhitungan sudah mencapai akhir sebelum jumlah sampel tercapai, maka perhitungan kembali ke awal.



b) Sampling kemudahan (convenience sampling)
Pada sampling kemudahan (convenience sampling), sampel diambil berdasarkan faktor spontanitas, artinya siapa saja yang secara tidak sengaja bertemu dengan peneliti dan sesuai dengan karakteristiknya, maka orang tersebut dapat dijadikan sampel.


c) Sampling bertujuan (purposive sampling)
Sampling bertujuan adalah teknik penarikan sampel yang dilakukan berdasarkan karakteristik yang ditetapkan terhadap elemen populasi target yang disesuaikan dengan tujuan atau masalah penelitian. Dalam perumusan kriterianya, subjektivitas dan pengalaman peneliti sangat berperan. Penentuan kriteria ini dimungkinkan karena peneliti mempunyai pertimbangan-pertimbangan tertentu didalam pengambilan sampelnya.

d) Sampling kuota (quota sampling)
Sampling kuota (quota sampling) hampir mirip dengan teknik sampling stratifikasi. Bedanya, jika dalam sampling stratifikasi penarikan sampel dari setiap subpopulasi dilakukan dengan acak, maka dalam sampling kuota, ukuran serta sampel pada setiap sub-subpopulasi ditentukan sendiri oleh peneliti sampai jumlah tertentu tanpa acak. Hal ini dilakukan karena kadang-kadang peneliti tidak mengetahui jumlah pasti dari tiap subpopulasi sehingga tidak bisa menentukan proporsi yang akan diambil.


e) Snowball sampling
Snowball Sampling merupakan salah satu bentuk purposive sampling yang sangat tepat digunakan bila populasinya kecil dan spesifik. Cara pengambilan sampel dengan teknik ini dilakukan secara berantai, makin lama sampel menjadi semakin besar. Melalui teknik sampling ini, responden yang relevan di interview, diminta untuk menyebutkan responden lainnya sampai diperoleh sampel sebesar yang diinginkan peneliti, dengan spesialisasi yang sama karena biasanya mereka saling mengenal.


D. Jumlah Sampel
Untuk berapa besar jumlah sampel yang bisa dikatakan representative bagi satu populasi, tidak terdapat ukuran pasti. Layaknya, semakin besar jumlah sampel yang diambil semakin representatif sampel itu terhadap populasi. Dan jika dilihat dari segi keseragaman (homogenitas) populasi, semakin homogen populasi maka akan semakin representatif sampel yang diambil, meskipun hanya sebagian kecil dari populasi. Namun sebaliknya, semakin heterogen suatu populasi semakin tidak representatif sampel yang diambil dan jumlah sampel harus diambil lebih besar lagi.
Frankle dan Wallen (2008: 108) memberikan batas minimum jumlah sampel berdasarkan jenis penelitian. Untuk penelitian deskriptif jumlah sampel adalah 100, untuk penelitian korelasional jumlah sampel adalah 50 dan untuk penelitian experimen dan kausal komparatif adalah 30 pada masing masing grup.
Arikunto (2007: 95) menentukan beberapa rumus yang bisa digunakan untuk menentukan jumlah sampel jika ditinjau dari jumlah populasi. Jika penelitian mempunyai beberapa ratus subjek, maka batas minimumnya adalah 25 – 30%. Dan jika penelitian mempunyai 100 hingga 150 orang, maka sebaiknya subjek diambil keseluruhannya.




DAFTER PUSTAKA


Arikunto, Suharsimi, 2007. Manajemen Penelitian, Jakarta: Rineka Cipta

Blaxter, Loraine, dkk, 1996. How to Research. Buckingham: Open University Press

Gay L.R, 1981. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application. Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co

Frankle, R. Jack dan Wallen, E. Norman 2008. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: Mc. Graw Hill Publisher Co

Tugas-Research Methodology - PTK

Classroom Action Research

I. Purposes/Reasons why doing Classroom Action Research (CAR)

We may ask why it is CAR that we do in certain research. For what reasons? What do teachers get from CAR?

        Teachers, every day involved in learning process, must have the answers for the above questions. They directly see and face some problems while they are in learning process. They can, by themselves, identify many possible problems that could be a barrier to a successful learning process in their class.

Hence, CAR is conducted for a classroom problem solving. There are two main problems that can be solved through CAR:

        1. Problems with students’ achievements (cognitive)

Problems with achievement can be problems with students’ mental or intellectual skills towards the material given to them. They or some of them cannot understand the materials. Teachers are to diagnose these problems to be researched through CAR.

        2. problems with students’ attitudes (affective)

Beside students’ achievement, their attitudes (behaviors) are also a big problem to a successful learning process in a class. Some students may be lazy, some are bored while learning, and some may be uninterested in the materials given by teachers in class and many other problems with their attitude which affect the effectiveness in a learning process.

There are many positive effects for teachers by conducting CAR:

• A comprehensive collaboration between teachers and their colleagues

A teacher as a researcher works collaboratively with his/her colleagues to make a better control over the class. They share opinions, reflect, and give feed back each other. By working collaboratively, they create a good cooperative educational environment to make an innovation for their class.

• Chances to learn and understand their structure of learning development

To meet the need of a learning process, a teacher will have to have good understanding of some related components like materials, media, classroom management, classroom strategies, and teaching approaches. To see the problems with these, a teacher can have an interview to his/her students who are directly involved in learning process.

• A new framework in developing their professionalism

A teacher, while researching, would find a new creative teaching approach. Begin with CAR he/she is doing in a classroom, he/she can further analyze some weaknesses he/she has in their previous approach then make an improvement to meet the need of their classroom learning process. Here, they are actually improving their professionalism as a successful teacher in controlling and managing their class.

• A new style in research

Through CAR, a teacher creates a new style in research. A teacher can always introduce a new style that may be of use to other researchers to conduct.

                                 Teaching                                             Science and Technology

                                                                    Problems

                                 Researching                                       Teaching Theory

                                                             Brings up to date

                                                           Concept of learning

                                                         Professional Teachers

While teaching, teachers solve their classroom problems through CAR by considering over taking in science and technology in learning process. Therefrom, a good useful learning theory can be made. There comes a professional teacher.

II. Characteristics of CAR

1. Solving Actual Problems

Because teachers are directly involved in learning process, they would of course be able to identify the problems they have in their learning process. Therefore, CAR is conducted in solving actual problems in their learning environment.

2. Collaborative Problem Solving

In conducting CAR, teachers are accompanied by other teachers or colleagues. They work collaboratively, share opinions, and give feedback one another. Their collaboration makes a better research. It is not teachers and their colleagues who work collaboratively but also their students. Students participate in CAR; they give response in the interview with their teachers.

III. Class in CAR

What does it mean by class in CAR?

Class, in CAR, is not limited to refer to only any enclosed room where learning process take place. But, a classroom in car can mean any environments where learning processes are held. It can be a room, a laboratory, home activities, outdoor learning activities, study tour activities and so on. Thus, CAR can be conducted to research any of the above categories.

IV. Identifying Problems

Since teachers are directly involved in a learning environment, they can easily identify something that would be a problem. Any things, related to the learning process, that might likely be an obstacle to progress, can be considered a classroom problem.

Teachers, when teaching, may find some difficulties concerning the students, teachers themselves, materials, media, class managements, learning discipline, teaching approaches, achievements and learning processes. They could find themselves asking ‘why’ or ‘how’ concerning those class components if they find any problems.

This means that a problem in class can be easily identify by asking why or how with the class components. Below are some components of class:

• Students

• Teachers

• Media

• Materials

• Class management

• Learning discipline

• Teachers’ approach

• Achievements

• Learning processes

Those components can cause problems to a successful classroom learning process. Some problems may come from students like their reluctant to speak in speaking class. A teacher may ask “why are students so reluctant to speak in speaking class?”, “do they have difficulties in understanding the materials?”, “Do I (teacher) need a different approach in teaching this materials?”

Last, CAR is an effective way to solve classroom problem in learning process. It suggests a solution through a self-reflect problem solving.

Definition of Psycholinguitics

Study of the mental processes involved in the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language. Much psycholinguistic work has been devoted to the learning of language by children and on speech processing and comprehension by both children and adults. Traditional areas of research include language production, language comprehension, language acquisition, language disorders, language and thought, and neurocognition.

An area of study which draws from linguistics and psychology and focuses upon the comprehension and production of language. Although psychologists have long been interested in language, and the field of linguistics is an older science than psychology, scientists in the two fields have had little contact until the work of Noam Chomsky was published in the late 1950s. Chomsky's writing had the effect of making psychologists acutely aware of their lack of knowledge about the structure of language, and the futility of focusing attention exclusively upon the surface structure of language. As a result, psycholinguists, who have a background of training in both linguistics and psychology, have been attempting since the early 1960s to gain a better understanding of how the abstract rules which determine human language are acquired and used to communicate appropriately created meaningful messages from one person to another via the vocal-auditory medium. Research has been directed to the evolutionary development of language, the biological bases of language, the nature of the sound system, the rules of syntax, the nature of meaning, and the process of language acquisition.

psycholinguistics, the study of psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. An important focus of psycholinguistics is the largely unconscious application of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences. Psycholinguists investigate the relationship between language and thought, a perennial subject of debate being whether language is a function of thinking or thought a function of the use of language. However, most problems in psycholinguistics are more concrete, involving the study of linguistic performance and language acquisition, especially in children. The work of Noam Chomsky and other proponents of transformational grammar have had a marked influence on the field. Neurolinguists study the brain activity involved in language use, obtaining much of their data from people whose ability to use language has been impaired due to brain damage.

Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, and understand language.

---

See also:

Mind & Brain

• Language Acquisition
• Child Development
• Intelligence
• Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Behavior

Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain functioned.
Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the brain processes language.
There are a number of subdisciplines; for example, as non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain become more and more widespread, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own right. Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, etc.
Developmental psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn language, usually with experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as those made by Jean Piaget in his research on the development of children). Psycholinguistics is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied by people in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science, and linguistics.
There are several subdivisions within psycholinguistics that are based on the components that make up human language..
For more information about the topic Psycholinguistics, read the full article at Wikipedia.org, or see the following related articles:

Psychopathology — Psychopathology is a term which refers to either the study of mental illness or mental distress or the manifestation of behaviours and experiences ...  > read more

Social cognition — Social cognition is the study of how people process social information, especially its encoding, storage, retrieval, and application to social ...  > read more

Cognitive psychology — Cognitive Psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. It had its ...  > read more

Neuropsychology — Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology and neurology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific ...  > read more

What is psycholinguistics?

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Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language. Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain functioned. Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, linguistics, and information theory to study how the brain processes language. There are a number of subdisciplines with non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain; for example, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own right.
Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, etc. Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn language.

Contents [hide] 1 Areas of study 2 Theories 3 Methodologies 3.1 Behavioral 3.2 Neuroimaging 3.3 Computational 4 Issues and areas of research 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links

[edit] Areas of study

Psycholinguistics is interdisciplinary and is studied by people in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science, and linguistics. There are several subdivisions within psycholinguistics that are based on the components that make up human language.
Linguistic-related areas:

• Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech sounds. Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these sounds.
• Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation).
• Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined together to form sentences.
• Semantics deals with the meaning of words and sentences. Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of sentences.
• Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of meaning.

Psychology-related areas:

• The study of word recognition and reading examines the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed text.
• Developmental psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn and process language, usually with experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as those made by Jean Piaget in his research on the development of children).

[edit] Theories

Theories about how language works in the human mind attempt to account for, among other things, how we associate meaning with the sounds (or signs) of language and how we use syntax—that is, how we manage to put words in the proper order to produce and understand the strings of words we call "sentences". The first of these items—associating sound with meaning—is the least controversial and is generally held to be an area in which animal and human communication have at least some things in common (See animal communication). Syntax, on the other hand, is controversial, and is the focus of the discussion that follows.
There are essentially two schools of thought as to how we manage to create syntactic sentences: (1) syntax is an evolutionary product of increased human intelligence over time and social factors that encouraged the development of spoken language; (2) language exists because humans possess an innate ability, an access to what has been called a "universal grammar". This view holds that the human ability for syntax is "hard-wired" in the brain. This view claims, for example, that complex syntactic features such as recursion are beyond even the potential abilities of the most intelligent and social non-humans. (Recursion includes the use of relative pronouns to refer back to earlier parts of a sentence ("The girl whose car is blocking my view of the tree that I planted last year is my friend.")) The innate view claims that the ability to use syntax like that would not exist without an innate concept that contains the underpinnings for the grammatical rules that produce recursion. Children acquiring a language, thus, have a vast search space to explore among possible human grammars, settling, logically, on the language(s) spoken or signed in their own community of speakers. Such syntax is, according to the second point of view, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal communication.
The first view was prevalent until about 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf Carnap. As well, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by B.F. Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is behavior shaped by conditioned response. The second point of view (the "innate" one) can fairly be said to have begun with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959 in the pages of the journal Language.^[1] That review started what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in psychology.
The field of psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and con. The pro view still holds that the human ability to use syntax is qualitatively different from any sort of animal communication. This ability may have resulted from a favorable mutation or from an adaptation of skills evolved for other purposes. In support of the latter view is the theory that language serves group needs; better linguistic expression may have produced more cohesion, cooperation, and potential for survival. The con view still holds that language—including syntax—is an outgrowth of hundreds of thousands of years of increasing intelligence and tens of thousands of years of human interaction. From that view, syntax in language gradually increased group cohesion and potential for survival. Language—syntax and all—is a cultural artifact. This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested; the fact that a particular, conceivable syntactic structure does not exist in any of the world's finite repertoire of languages is an interesting observation, but it is not proof of a genetic constraint on possible forms, nor does it prove that such forms couldn't exist or couldn't be learned.
Contemporary theorists, besides Chomsky, working in the field of theories of psycholinguistics include George Lakoff and Steven Pinker.

[edit] Methodologies

[edit] Behavioral

Much methodology in psycholinguistics takes the form of behavioral experiments incorporating a lexical decision task. In these types of studies, subjects are presented with some form of linguistic input and asked to perform a task (e.g. make a judgment, reproduce the stimulus, read a visually presented word aloud). Reaction times (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of performance. Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word later.^[2]
Such tasks might include, for example, asking the subject to convert nouns into verbs; e.g., "book" suggests "to write," "water" suggests "to drink," and so on. Another experiment might present an active sentence such as "Bob threw the ball to Bill" and a passive equivalent, "The ball was thrown to Bill by Bob" and then ask the question, "Who threw the ball?" We might then conclude (as is the case) that active sentences are processed more easily (faster) than passive sentences. More interestingly, we might also find out (as is the case) that some people are unable to understand passive sentences; we might then make some tentative steps towards understanding certain types of language deficits (generally grouped under the broad term, aphasia).^[3]
More recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language processing. Beginning with Rayner (1978)^[4] the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was established. Tanenhaus et al.,^[5] have performed a number of visual-world eye-tracking studies to study the cognitive processes related to spoken language. Since eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented with linguistic input.

[edit] Neuroimaging

Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the brain. For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of epilepsy. Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic surgery. Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their research.
Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy). Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in psycholinguistics.

[edit] Computational

Computational modeling—e.g. the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Coltheart and colleagues^[6]—is another methodology. It refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer programs. Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis unreliable. Another example of computational modeling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech perception.^[7]

[edit] Issues and areas of research

Psycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce language. For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic input.^[2][8]
Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the brain.
There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human language.
Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language acquisition. In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily). Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned readily.^[9] A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over time. It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn more.^[10]
The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain damage. Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes language.

[edit] See also

Psychology portal

• Language acquisition
• Second language acquisition
• Human brain
• Neurolinguistics
• Animal language
• Educational psychology
• Language processing
• Speech perception
• TRACE model

[edit] References

1. ^ Chomsky, N; Skinner, B. F. (1959). "A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior". Language (Linguistic Society of America) 35 (1): 26–58. doi:10.2307/411334. ISSN 0097-8507. http://jstor.org/stable/411334. 
2. ^ ^{a b} Packard, Jerome L (2000). "Chinese words and the lexicon." The Morphology of Chinese: A Linguistic and Cognitive Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 284-309.
3. ^ Linebarger MC, Schwartz MF, Saffran EM. (1983). Sensitivity to grammatical structure in so-called agrammatic aphasics. Cognition, 13:361-92.
4. ^ Rayner, K. Eye movements in reading and information processing. Psychological Bulletin, 1978, 85, 618-660
5. ^ Tanenhaus, M. K., Spivey-Knowlton, M. J., Eberhard, K. M. & Sedivy, J. E. (1995). "Integration of visual and linguistic information in spoken language comprehension." Science, 268, 1632-1634.
6. ^ Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R., & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: "A dual route cascaded of visual word recognition and reading aloud." Psychological Review, 108, 204-256.
7. ^ McClelland, J.L., & Elman, J.L. (1986). The TRACE model of speech perception. Cognitive Psychology, 18, 1-86.
8. ^ Altmann, Gerry T.M. (1997). "Words, and how we (eventually) find them." The Ascent of Babel: An Exploration of Language, Mind, and Understanding. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 65-83.
9. ^ Seidner, Stanley S.(1982). Ethnicity, Language, and Power from a Psycholinguistic Perspective. Bruxelles: Centre de recherche sur le pluralinguisme. pp. 4-7.
10. ^ Seidner, Stanley S.(1982). Ethnicity, Language, and Power from a Psycholinguistic Perspective. Bruxelles: Centre de recherche sur le pluralinguisme. p. 11.

[edit] Further reading

A short list of books that deal with psycholinguistics, written in language accessible to the non-expert, includes:

• Belyanin V.P. Foundations of Psycholinguistic Diagnostics (Models of the World). Moscow, 2000 (in Russian) [1]
• Chomsky, Noam. (2000) New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Harley, Trevor. (2008) The Psychology of Language: From data to theory (3rd. ed.) Hove: Psychology Press.
• Harley, Trevor. (2009) Talking the talk: Language, psychology and science. Hove: Psychology Press.
• Lakoff, George. (1987) Women, fire, and dangerous things: what categories reveal about the mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Piattelli-Palmarini, Massimo. (ed.) (1980) Language and learning: the debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
• Pinker, Steven. (1994) The Language Instinct. New York: William Morrow.
• Rayner, K. and Pollatsek, A. (1989) The Psychology of Reading. New York:Prentice Hall.
• Steinberg, Danny D., Hiroshi Nagata, and David P. Aline, ed. (2001) Psycholinguistics: Language, Mind and World, 2nd ed. Longman [2]
• Steinberg, Danny D. & Sciarini, Natalia. (2006) Introduction to Psycholinguistics 2nd edition. London: Longman.
• Aitchison, Jean. (1998). The Articulate Mammal: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. Routledge.
• Scovel, Thomas. (1998). Psycholinguistics. Oxford University Press.

Semantic Processing - Lexical Ambiguity Resolution

Uncertainty Reduction: Ambiguity Resolution Mechanisms in Language

[ Computational Modeling ]
Posted on: October 3, 2007 11:07 AM, by Chris Chatham

Ambiguity is a constant problem for any embodied cognitive agent with limited resources. Decisions need to be made, and their consequences understood, despite the probabilistic veil of uncertainty enveloping everything from sensory input to action execution. Clearly, there must be mechanisms for dealing with or resolving such ambiguity.
A nice sample domain for understanding ambiguity resolution is language, where problems of uncertainty have been long appreciated. The meaning of words in general (not to mention referents like "that" or "he") can be highly ambiguous (see "the gavagai problem"). A similar problem abounds in grammar, famously in the case of garden path sentences ("the horse raced past the barn fell"), where grammatical ambiguities are often completely overlooked until a differentiating word is encountered ("fell").
Most accounts of language emphasize the distinction between semantics (the meanings of words) and syntax (the rules involved in how words are put together - essentially, grammar). One might therefore suspect that ambiguity resolution in these two domains is separable. However, a classic Psychological Review article by MacDonald, Pearlmutter and Seidenberg describes a single ambiguity resolution mechanism which might operate both on semantics and syntax.

MacDonald et al emphasize that the same three issues turn up in both lexical and syntactic explorations of ambiguity resolution: the role of frequency information, contextual constraints, and issues concerning modularity v.s. distributed interactivity. I'll illustrate examples from both below:
Frequency Information. Words with approximately equally-frequent multiple meanings (e.g., "pitcher") show longer eye fixation times than those words with either a single meaning or those with highly biased meanings (where one meaning is much more frequent than the other). Similarly, in grammatical processing, the interpretation of garden path sentences was presumed by Chomskian theory to be accomplished by a grammatical parser with no access to frequency information, and yet some work demonstrates that the frequency of words used in garden path sentences may influence the interpretation subjects adopt to resolve the ambiguity of those sentences.
Contextual Information. In research on the influence of context on semantics, some studies have shown that words with multiple meanings have all the potential meanings activated automatically, while other studies have shown that the context in which the word appears does influence the extent to which certain meanings become activated (as determined through priming studies), even when the context doesn't seem to directly prime the ambiguous word's various meanings. Similarly, in research on syntax, context has been shown to influence the interpretation of garden path sentences, contradicting other accounts (e.g., minimal attachment algorithms) of garden path sentence processing.
Representation: Modularity vs Distributed Processing. Although many researchers emphasize that the multiple meanings of words seem to be accessed from memory, as though each meaning comprises a different record in a master database of all meanings (sometimes called the "mental lexicon"), other research has demonstrated that meanings interact with one another through the frequency and contextual effects described above. Thus, lexical access seems compatible with what might be expected from a distributed (i.e., connectionist) rather than modular (database-like, to simplify) representation. Similarly, in grammatical processing, early Chomskian theory presumed that grammatical rules were unrelated to the particular lexical entries of a particular language, whereas later Chomskian and related theories (e.g., Government Binding theory) proposed a much tighter interaction between semantics and grammar, suggestive again of more distributed and less modular processing.
Rather than reflecting mere coincidence, MacDonald et al propose that the similar theoretical, methodological and empirical issues surrounding lexical and syntactic processing reflect a fundamentally similar mechanism underlying the resolution of ambiguity in all of linguistic processing.
Specifically, they suggest that the cortical representation of words is distributed, such that many neurons participate in the representation of many words and that those representations differ mostly in the degrees to which various neurons contribute to those representations. Critically, these networks encode not only semantic information but also syntactic information (for example, tense, voice, person, gender, etc). Nodes which represent mutually compatible interpretations of a sentence are connected in an excitatory fashion, whereas those representing mutually incompatible interpretations are connected with inhibitory links; thus syntactic structures can be activated in a more graded fashion, in contrast to the "all-or-none" selection of grammatical structures implied by other views.
In this system, ambiguity resolution is accomplished by a winner-take-all process, at both the level of the individual words (which contain multiple meanings and related grammatical structures) and at the level of the larger linguistic context (where the "winning" patterns of activity from previous words may have a carry-over influence on activity elicited by the currently-processed word). The authors go on to account for a variety of syntactic ambiguities using this model, and demonstrate that the same lexical and contextual effects hold across these phenomena, as predicted by their unitary model of linguistic processing. It's interesting to note that some later connectionist models of language adopted a dual route mechanism, one route relying on phonological and another relying on orthographic information, to explain past tense formation. Although MacDonald et al advocate a single mechanism, they do not appear to have implemented this theory in all its scope, so it's unclear what kinds of architectural changes might be necessary to get it to work properly.
(taken from here)

Classroom Action Research III

Madison Metropolitan School District

"Action research is the process through which teachers collaborate in evaluating their practice jointly; raise awareness of their personal theory; articulate a shared conception of values; try out new strategies to render the values expressed in their practice more consistent with the educational values they espouse; record their work in a form which is readily available to and understandable by other teachers; and thus develop a shared theory of teaching by researching practice." - John Elliott

2009-10 Classroom Action Research Application

What is Action Research?	Five Phases of Action Research	Starting Points	Data Collection: The 5 W's and an H	Writing Prompts for Classroom Action Researchers	Ideas for Your Final Write-up
What Do Teacher Researchers Do?	Reasons to Do Action Research	Guidelines for Developing a Question	Techniques for Gathering Data	A Process for Analyzing Your Data	Impact of Action Research: Final Report to Spencer Foundation
What Are Some Effects of Teacher Research Projects?	Descriptors of Action Research	Guidelines for Data Collection	Guidelines for Analyzing Your Data	Role of Participants in a Group	CAR and Special Education Services
				Creating Equitable Classrooms Info

Classroom Action Research Abstracts and Selected Papers

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Classroom Action Research II

Classroom Action Research

(Keynote Speech in LIA’s 3^rd Research Colloquium)

By: Conny R. Semiawan

1. I. Prologue

Today, according to professional educators, the value of research lies in making it an integrated professional aspect of the job. This is the reason why the practitioner’s educational research is considered a part of our professionalism as teachers, not just an addition, but an extension of the job which will produce a valuable outcome because of the professional experience. This also explains the involvement which should be based on an intrinsic educational performance.
The concept of practical innovations is not anymore the prerogative of academic researchers but also the responsibility of the professional workers.

1. II. Concept

Classroom Action Research (CAR), therefore, as an integral part of action research (AR), deals with educational research as a social practice because as Elliot (1982 in Mc Niff, 1992) said: AR deals with a social situation to improve the quality of an action, the whole procedure of review, diagnosis, design, implementation, effect of the monitoring and the link between professional development and self evaluation. That is the reason why it is impossible for professional workers to become the object of research unless there is collaboration between the two parties. The value of AR lies in the fact that there is no split between the educational practice and the educational theory. It also reflects the changing culture in the investigation and the technological context that goes with it.
A very specific characteristic of CAR is that it is conducted in the classroom, that the focus of the study is the interaction between the researcher and the participants, and the researcher is involved as much as possible in the process and experience of the participants. An essential part of AR as well as CAR is the collaboration with the research participants in each stage of the research project, including identifying research questions, developing data collection procedures, analyzing the information and sharing the results.
Action Research implies a long term commitment to interact with the research participants. So the idea of just working with a group and/or going into a   classroom, collecting data on learning is not consistent with the ideal of action research.
AR as well as CAR is a straight forward practical approach to tackling issues of substance (Kember, 2000). The following four conditions are necessary:
-          it should be a form of strategic action susceptible to improvement
-          it should proceed through a spiral of circles: planning, actions, observing and reflecting which are all interrelated.
-          it includes other parties (colleagues, parents, etc)
-          it maintains collaboration in the context of research.

1. III. LIA’s English Teachers and Students

Since this research colloquium has been conducted twice, improvement of the research skill has been achieved. However, not much has been achieved in terms of acceleration of language development instruction because it is a new area of research.
Based on the current behavior research, a new linguistic program introducing accelerated learning can give us a small overview of what could happen, if we knew more about the latest information on neuroscience and its impacts on learning and on students with language talent.
By the time children reach school years most of them have mastered the basic rules of form and meaning. They pass the egocentric stage and are able to look at something with another person’s viewpoint. They are also engaged in social take and give. Mental development is also a major area of linguistic development, called pragmatics: the practical use of language to communicate. This includes both conversational and narrative skills.
Good conversationalists probe by asking questions before introducing a topic with which the other person may not be familiar. They quickly recognize a breakdown in communication and do something about it. However, there are significant individual differences in such conversational skills. Yet, in the majority of cases, when children aged 6 to 7 tell stories, they usually do not make them up. Stories that these children tell are more likely related to their personal experiences. The stories become longer and complex as children begin to describe motives and causal links. Consequently, those children construct more complex episodes than younger children, but with less unnecessary details.
Students with superior ability in language tend to display common characteristics, especially by the time they reach junior high school where language fluency rapidly develops. This is the background of how the brain works where rapid development of such language growth occurs (and how it could be accelerated) and we hope that input from recent research can give us new insights into accelerated language learning.
As Barbara Clark explains in her book “Growing up Gifted”:
The nerve cell, or neuron, is the basic unit of the brain. It is composed of the cell body, dendrites, and an axon. Inside the cell body are the nucleus and the biochemical processes that maintain the life of the cell. The neuron is a tiny system for information processing that receives and sends thousands of signals. No two cells are exactly alike nor are any two brains alike. We are as different from one another as snowflakes. The dendrites are short fibers that extend from the cell body, branching out to form the pathways for receiving information from nearby nerve cells. The axon is one long nerve fiber that extends from the cell body and serves as a transmitter, sending signals that are picked up by the branches of the neighboring dendrites. The activity between neurons is carried out by the dendrites of one cell in contact with the axon of another. The end of the axon does not actually touch the dendrite of the other cell but transmits the information chemically across a region where the cells are particularly close. This junction across which impulses travel from one nerve cell to another is called the synapse. The transmission of a nerve impulse is an electrochemical process. At the synapse, the electrical impulses that travel through the cell convert into chemical signals, then back to electrical impulses. It is this synapse that is thought to be the most likely site for neural mechanisms of learning and memory (Thompson, Berger, and Berry, 1980).
Surrounding the neurons are special cells known as glia. These cells outnumber the neural cells ten to one and can be increased by stimulation from the environment (Rosenzweig, 1966). The glial cells provide the brain with nourishment, consume waste products, and serve as packing material actually gluing the brain together. They also insulate the nerve cell, creating myelin, a special coating that protects the axon and amplifies the signal leaving the cell. Myelin has an important function, in that it allows the coated axon to conduct information away from the neuron at a much faster rate than unmyelinated axons (Thompson et al., 1980). As we increase the glial cells in the brain, we accelerate the speed of learning. It is rather like the difference that can be seen between electrical conduction through insulated and noninsulated wiring: the speed and power of the charge increase by the use of insulation.
We influence the rate of glial cell production by the richness of the environment we provide (Rosenzweig, 1966). The more glia, the more accelerated will be the synaptic activity and the more powerful will be the impulse exchange from one cell to the next, allowing for faster and more complex patterns of thinking, two characteristics we find in gifted children. The speed of thought is amazing. If a nerve pathway is used often, the threshold of the synapse falls, so that the pathway operates more readily. A wave front is started that may sweep over at least 100,000 neurons a second (Brierly, 1976).
Another way of increasing synaptic activity is by strengthening the neuron’s cell body. While we cannot increase the quantity of neural cells, we can increase the quality (Rosenzweigh, 1966: Krech, 1969, 1970). This quality enhancement allows again for information to be processed more quickly and for more power to be conducted, resulting in the availability of more complex neural networks. Interaction in an enriched environment changes the chemical structure of the neural cell, thereby strengthening the cell body.
It is by increasing the strength and the speed of transmission or synaptic activity that we can affect the process of learning. We can through changes in teaching and learning procedures affect the growth of dendritic branching, increase the complexity of the network of connections among neurons, and the quantity of glial cells. These are the differences we see in brains that show advanced and accelerated development. By the environment we provide, we change not just the behavior of children, we change them at the cellular level. In this way gifted children become biologically different from average learners, not at birth, but as a result of using and developing the wondrous, complex structure with which they were born. At birth nearly everyone is programmed to be phenomenal (Clark, B, 1983).
With this explanation, I would like to express a message that we can through CAR as a vehicle could change the teaching procedures to enhance learning, by providing an environment which could stimulate the talents of an individual, especially an individual with language talents.
Students with high ability in language do tend to display common characteristics, especially by the time they reach middle school where language fluency rapidly develops. Use the scale below to help decide if a particular student is gifted in language arts. If you rate the student with scores of 4 or 5 on more than half of the characteristics, then further assessment is warranted.

The student ….

A little       Some       A lot

Writes or talks in imaginative and coherent ways. Organizes text in a manner that is exceptional for the student’s age. Expresses ideas succinctly and elegantly. Writes with a flair for metaphorical and poetic expression. Takes the lead in helping a group reach its writing goal. Easily grasps the essence of a writing style and adapts it for personal use. Can capture and maintain the attention of an audience by using drama and humor in imaginative ways. Engages creatively and seriously with social and moral issues expressed in literature. Justifies opinions convincingly. Shows special awareness of language features, such as intonation, rhyme, accents in spoken language, and grammatical organization in written texts. Presents reason arguments at the hypothetical or abstract level in both spoken and written language.

1 —-  2 —- 3 —- 4 —-  5 1 —-  2 —- 3 —- 4 —-  5 1 —-  2 —- 3 —- 4 —-  5 1 —-  2 —- 3 —- 4 —-  5 1 —-  2 —- 3 —- 4 —-  5 1 —-  2 —- 3 —- 4 —-  5 1 —-  2 —- 3 —- 4 —-  5 1 —-  2 —- 3 —- 4 —-  5 1 —-  2 —- 3 —- 4 —-  5 1 —-  2 —- 3 —- 4 —-  5 1 —-  2 —- 3 —- 4 —-  5

Sousa, 2003

Reference

Clark, B. R. 1983. Growing up Gifted. USA: Merril Publishing Co.
Kember, D. 2000. Action Learning and Action Research. London: Kogan Page Limited.
Sousa, D.A. 2003. How the Gifted Brain Learns. USA: Convin Press Inc, ASa Publ. Co.
Thompson, e.a. in Clark, B. R. 1983. Growing up Gifted. USA: Merril Publishing Co.
Brierly in Clark, B. R. 1983. Growing up Gifted. USA: Merril Publishing Co.